Why Do Parents Abduct? Essay -- essays research papers

Why Do Parents Abduct? According to the U.S. Department of Justice, over 354,000 children are kidnapped by a parent each year in divorce custody disputes. Some of the children are recovered or returned quickly while others may be on the run for years. Unfortunately many of these children are never found. Generally, people are concerned with the traumatic effects of these events on the child involved. However, both the searching parent and the abductor have many pending issues with which to deal. Some people believe that children "kidnapped" by their own parents are the lucky ones. In fact, because revenge is often the driving force for these abductions, the child may become subject to physical, sexual and mental abuse. While "When Families Are Torn Apart," is written by Mary Morrissey, the majority of the article is quoted from Geoffrey Greif and Rebecca Hegar. In the article, Greif and Hegar explain how they attempted to fill in the gap of information about the trauma of long-term abduction. Their findings appear in the book When Parents Kidnap. Each parent, child, and abductor may deal with the kidnapping differently. For some it is very frightful and requires years of psychological evaluation to overcome. According to Greif and Hegar, abducted children develop extremely close bonds with their abductors. Often the abductors lie to the children about the other parent. They may say that the other parent does not want the child or is dead. The longer the child is away the harder it is for everyone involved. At these times, professional help is strongly suggested. Issues for Parent - their own feelings about the abduction - helping them to be able to care for the child - helping them to bring the whole family together - helping them to help readjust the other children - helping them to cope with any odd behavior that may be exhibited by the abducted child - developmental changes of the child Issues for Children - trust - sexual abuse - anti-social behavior - why the child thinks the abduction occurs - dealing with the length of the abduction and the time that they missed with the rest of their family - experiences during the abduction - they child may have been brainwashed by the abducting parent - whether or not she wants to return to the abductor - being scared about the chance of being abducted again - + many others Issues for Abdu... ...ence. You can hurt someone just as much emotionally as if you had stabbed them with a knife or cut off their arm. Just as applicable is that this is an extreme, and excessive end to a divorce dispute. What I found interesting about the reunification process in these cases is that they are often depicted in both movies and books as a joyful reunion. When if fact, the assimilation of an abducted child to the family that they have not seen in years is not always so smooth. I was appalled by the lack of assistance from the police and the ignorance of the courts. The idea that a parent would kill their own child and take their own life as well, solely to prevent their ex- spous e from being with the child is incomprehensible. Both of the articles were extremely informative. The techniques used to write the articles were equally effective, giving a different perspective on the stories. The possibility of recovering after an event as traumatic as abduction through psychological counseling is a welcomed and exciting idea. The course on "Introduction to Psychology" has opened my eyes to the extent that psychology can go to help make a difference in the lives of people everywhere.

Descriptions And Categories Of Hurricanes Environmental Sciences Essay

IntroductionHurricanes are tropical storms with air current velocities transcending 74mph. They typically occur over oceans and get down their formations from the equatorial parts of the universe. They are really complex conditions phenomena that are still hard to understand. They are besides called tropical cyclones and typhoons. in order for them to be classified in 1969 by Saffir, H and Simpson, B. developed a graduated table which is used to categorise them, this is refered to as the Saffir-Simpson graduated table. They range from least harmful to the most harmful ranging from class 1-5 ( Katsaros et al, 2002, ) . Hurricanes are normally accompanied by storm rushs. In order to understand the character of hurricanes the ambiance over oceans are continuously observed by assorted conditions orbiters in infinite, and other aerial detectors. Storm surges normally accompany hurricanes. Classs Cardinal Pressures in millibars Wind velocities Miles per hour Damage 1 & gt ; 980 74-95 Minimal 2 965-979 96-110 Moderate 3 945-964 111-130 Extensive 4 920-944 131-155 Extreme 5 & lt ; 920 & gt ; 155 Catastrophic Table 1: Showing Saffir-Simpson graduated table â€Å" Beginning: Adapted from katsaros et Al ( 2002 ) † Figure 1: Partss of a hurricane â€Å" Beginning: NASA online † The parts which are: the oculus, the wall and the rain sets.Remote Sensing of hurricanes.As a consequence of their really destructive nature, hurricanes are monitored by orbiters and aerial remote feeling engineerings. The type of detectors used scope from the optical, micro-cook and non merely by conditions orbiters but by several other orbiters. In the instance of exigencies other orbiters are besides used to supervise hurricanes. Table 2 below shows some of the orbiters and aerial detectors that are used in the instance of exigencies to supervise hurricanes. Optical and micro-cook orbiters are frequently really critical in supervising hurricanes as they tend to come on. Due to their big spacial declarations, they can be used to track the flight of hurricanes. These optical imagination are besides sometimes used in the absence of Radar techniques, to analyze the physical belongingss of hurricanes. These physical belongingss include: liquid H2O way, thermodynamic stage of atoms and their approximative size ( Kokhanovsky & A ; Hoyningen-Huene, 2004 ) In order to supervise hurricanes as they progress, in order for hurricanes to be understood in the context of its character and physical belongingss, microwave orbiters provide seasonably atmospheric coverage as they can perforate clouds and due to their long wavelengths and work irrespective of twenty-four hours or dark. ( Navalgund et al, 2007 ) . Scatterometers, Man-made Aperture Radar and micro-cook radiometers are some of the instruments uses in microwave remote feeling. While Scatterrometers and Man-made Aperture Radar are active detectors breathing their ain energy, Microwave Radiometers merely step reflected energy transmitted to it as it is a inactive detector. Scatterometers are used to mensurate surface air current velocities and way. They measure ocean surface raggedness and are really sensitive instruments. If the air current velocity is non Of all the declarations, a high temporal declaration is the most of import in tracking the way of a hurricane. This is non to state that radiometric, spectral and spacial declarations are non of import. This is necessary in order to adequately foretell the way of the hurricane and to efficaciously supervise its advancement to state if its strength is reduced or increased. Besides, information and information about hurricanes can easy go out-of-date as as the hurricane changes its class. Timely airing of informations from a hurricane is necessary in order for the terminal usage which might be a catastrophe monitoring bureau to accurately circulate information to the general populace. Besides, a high spectral declaration is needed in order to easy separate between sets, to be able to properly analyse informations presented. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer ( MODIS ) has really high spectral declaration of 32 sets when compared with Landsat Thematic plotter which has 7 sets ( Womble et al 2006 ) . In the trailing of the hurricane, a really larger spectral declaration will find the peculiarity between sets and the ability to spot information. Determining the perpendicular construction of the ambiance requires a high spectral declaration infrared observations. ( Schmit et al 2009 ) . Synergy or a combination of the assorted distant feeling engineerings frequently produce the best information needed to understand hurricanes. In a study carried by MCEER in the aftermath of hurricane Katrina, it was found that earlier forcasts about the class of the storm was incorrect. By uniting informations from assorted assorted orbiters, the true magniturde of the hurricane was determined ( Womble et al 2006 ) . Future tendencies in hurricane forcasting will concentrate on bettering spectral declaration in order to be able to easy demonstrated engineering such as the advanced IR sounder engineering will enable â€Å" A geostationary advanced IR sounder would supply breakthrough measurings on the clip development of horizontal and perpendicular H2O vapour and temperature constructions. These measurings would be an unprecedented beginning of information on the dynamic and thermodynamic atmospheric Fieldss, an of import benefit to nowcasting and numerical conditions anticipation † ( Schmit et al 2009 ; 2274 ) A high radiometric declaration on the other manus will take to greater peculiarity in images. The higher the spectral declaration of the image, the more characteristics can be distinguished. The areal extent covered when tracking a hurricane should non be so much in order for the Instantaneous field of position non to be excessively much. In accessing jeopardies after the hurricane, a spacial declaration is needed. As u can non hold it all, trade offs are made and determinations as to instruments which can integrate all of these features possibly will give better apprehension of hurricanes.Table 2: Distant feeling informations used in hurricane monitoring. â€Å" Beginning: Womble et Al ( 2006 ) † REMOTE SENSING OF HURRICANES The first conditions orbiters which were launched provided planetary coverage of conditions events and due to their low spacial declarations. They besides had high temporal declarations supplying seasonably updates every bit frequently as every 30mins. These orbiters include APPROPRIATENESS OF REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY TO SOCIO ECONOMIC SITUATION The socio-economic stableness attained by the western universe has enabled her to accomplish and be able to develop and afford really expensive engineering such as distant detection. The placing of orbiters in infinite whether Geostationary or polar orbiting and the usage of other signifiers of airborne ( aeroplanes, balloons etc ) Remote Sensing Technology, the benefits derivable from timely warning of catastrophes such as hurricanes can non be of all time emphasized ( Murthi & A ; Madhusudan 2008 ) . Without this engineering natural happenings such as hurricanes can non be predicted. Remote feeling engineering by enabling early sensing of natural catastrophes and triping off widespread warning enables catastrophe warning and catastrophe direction proparations to be carried out. Disaster direction organic structures such as FERMA, seashore guard both of the united provinces are better equipped to work decently and can assist salvage 100s of 1000s of lives and harm to belongings can besides be reduced. â€Å" Satellite observations of land, oceans, atmosphere, and specifically, during natural and human-induced jeopardies have become important for protecting the planetary environment, cut downing catastrophe losingss, and accomplishing sustainable development † ( Navagundi et al 2007: 1747 ) . As a consequence of timely warning of impending catastrophes, concerns are given early warnings and can shut on clip, and belongingss which can be moved out of injuries manner were moved. In 1992, hurricane Andrew destroyed about 25,524 places and damaged another 101,241 taking to estimated amendss of $ 25billion. Besides, in 2005 hurricanes Denis, Katrina, Rita and Wilma caused huge amendss amounting to $ 32.83 billion ( Otero et al 2009 ) . IMPORTANCE OF REAL TIME REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY In supervising hurricanes as they grow and advancement, existent clip information or information is required as information can easy go out-of-date. Timely data entree and airing is really of import peculiarly in hurricanes. Although satellite engineering provides information about hurricanes they do non demo plenty item to be able to really accurately predict their tends or proctor hurricanes. NASA normally flies aircraft into the oculus of the hurricane to be able to acquire more item about the hurricanes. In cases when it is excessively unsafe to wing, aircrafts that do non necessitate worlds are flown into the hurricanes to be able to acquire more inside informations and timely updates. Hurricane Katrina presented new frontiers for research as it showed oversights in satellite anticipations. Initial premises based on the safir-simpson graduated table declared hurricane Katrina as a class 4 storm. Latter ratings utilizing a synergism of low declaration orbiters, moderate declaration orbiters, high declaration orbiters and high declaration aerial imagination showed that it was a class 3 storm and that the sum of devastation that accompanied it was a consequence of the storm rush which was still category 5 ( Womble et at 2006 ) . Detailss of the orbiters and their declarations is given below in table 2. Had the exact strength of the storm rush been known before Katrina hit, there would hold been a more equal readying and exigency response. REFEERENCES Dabas, A. ( 2010 ) Detecting the Atmospheric air current from infinite. Comptes Rendus Geosciences. Article in imperativeness. Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sciencedirect.com [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] Harding, L.W. , Miller, W.D. , Swift, R.N. & A ; Wright, C.W. ( 2003 ) Aircraft Remote Sensing. Encyclopaedia of Ocean Sciences. Pp.113-122. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sciencedirect.com [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] Katsaros, K.B. Vachon, P.W. Liu, W.T. & A ; Black, P.G ( 2002 ) Microwave Remote Sensing of Tropical Cyclones from Space. Journal of Oceanography [ Internet ] January 58 ( 1 ) , pp.137-151 Available from & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.springerlink.com & gt ; [ last accessed 2 January 2010 ] Kokhanovsky, A.A. & A ; Hoyiningen-Huene, W.V. ( 2004 ) Optical belongingss of a hurricane. Atmospheric Research. [ Internet ] January-March 69 ( 3-4 ) pp.165-183 Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sciencedirect.com [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] Levinson, D. H. , Vickery, P.J. & A ; Resio, D.T. ( 2008 ) A reappraisal of the climatological features of landfalling Gulf hurricanes for air current, moving ridge, and billow hazard appraisal. Ocean Engineering. Article in imperativeness. Murthi, R.S. & A ; Madhusudan, H.N. ( 2008 ) Strategic considerations in Indian infinite programme-Towards maximising socio-economic benefits. Acta Astronuatica. [ Internet ] July-August 63 ( 1-4 ) pp.503-508 Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.sciencedirect.com [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] Navalgundi, R.R. Jayaraman, V. & A ; Roy, P.S. ( 2007 ) Remote Feeling Applications: An Overview. Current Science [ Internet ] December 93 ( 12 ) , pp.1747-1766 Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec252007/1747.pdf [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] Otero, C.E. , Velazquez, A. , Kostanic, I. , Subramanian, C. , Pinelli, J. & A ; Buist, L. ( 2009 ) Real-time Monitoring of Hurricane Winds utilizing Wireless and Sensor Technology. JOURNAL OF COMPUTERS. [ Internet ] December 4 ( 12 ) pp.1275-1285 Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.academypublisher.com/ojs/index.php/jcp/article/viewFile/041212751285/1332 [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] Schmit T.J. Li, J. Ackerman, S.A. & A ; Gurka, J.J. ( 2009 ) High-Spectral- and High-Temporal-Resolution Infrared Measurements from Geostationary Orbit. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. [ Internet ] November, volume 26 pp.2273-2292 Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //ams.allenpress.com/archive/1520-0426/26/11/pdf/i1520-0426-26-11-2273.pdf [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] Womble, J.A. Ghosh, S. Adams, B.J. & A ; Friedland, C.J. ( 2006 ) Advanced Damage Detection for Hurricane Katrina: Integrating Remote Sensing and VIEWSa„? Field Reconnaissance. MCEER Special Report Series [ Internet ] March, Volume 2, pp hypertext transfer protocol: //mceer.buffalo.edu/publications/Katrina/06SP02-web.pdf [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ] NASA ( 2004 ) How strong is that Hurricane. Available from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k4/home/F_How_Strong_Is_That_Hurricane.html [ last accessed 02 January 2010 ]

How MRSA Became Resistant To Antibiotics And Became Such a Prevalent Organism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2422 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Medicine Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Did you like this example? Discuss how MRSA became resistant to antibiotics and became such a prevalent organism associated with British hospitals. Explain how MRSA is treated and touch upon the wider implications for antibiotics and the future of healthcare. Introduction It may be argued that micro-organisms are the most successful life form on the planet partly due to their pervasive presence and their utilisation of any available food source, including humans. The ubiquitous presence of micro-organisms and their astronomic numbers give rise to many mutations that account for rapid evolutionary adaptation and in part for emerging antibiotic resistance (Evans and Brachman 1998). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How MRSA Became Resistant To Antibiotics And Became Such a Prevalent Organism" essay for you Create order Bacteria have evolved numerous structural and metabolic virulence factors that enhance their survival rate in the host. Once such bacteria is Meticillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). What is MRSA and why did resistance occur? The genus Staphylococcus are non-motile, Gram-positive cocci, measuring 0.5-1.5 µm in diameter and are commonly found in the nose and on skin. They can occur singly, in pairs, short chains or in grape like clusters. There are several species but Staphylococcus aureus has been a significant pathogen for humans for many years. It is different from other Staphylococci because it produces the enzyme coagulase. Potential virulence factors include surface proteins, which promote colonisation and membrane damaging toxins that can either damage tissue or invoke other disease symptoms. Before the emergence of antibiotics, the mortality rate for Staphylococcus aureus infections was 80% (Fedtke et al 2004). The versatile organism has developed a resistance to Meticillin due to its mobile genetic element the mecA gene, which is found in the Staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) and this mediates the resistance to ÃŽÂ ²-lactam antibiotics such as Meticillin (Greenwood 2000). Of the current antimicrobial resistant organisms, Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is probably the most challenging in a hospital setting. MRSA first came to the publics attention, here in the UK, in the 1980s when the first epidemic strain, Epidemic Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (EMRSA was identified. Subsequently a further sixteen epidemic strains have been recognised. Each strain has its own genetic makeup and display resistance to different antibiotics. EMRSA -15 and EMRSA -16 are the most common strains found in the UK, accounting for 96% of all MRSA bacteraemia. Worryingly, a new strain, EMRSA à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 17 was identified in 2000. Not only did it display resistance to the previously recognised antibiotics but also Fusidic acid, Rifampicin, Tetracycline and sometimes Mupirocin. Evolution and natural selection have produced the mechanism through which micro-organisms can adapt to their ever changing environment, including resistance t o natural and man made antibiotics. Bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus are adept at infecting and colonising humans and also aid other microbes to cause infection by producing anti-inflammatory molecules, which allow microbes to evade the bodys immune system (Fedtke et al 2004). They are also able to hide in biofilms and proteins called defensins.Therefore bacteria successful in these evasive strategies are able to pass these strategies down the generations in a process called horizontal gene transfer (Bush 2004). However, this is not a new phenomenon. As far back as 1940, the journal Nature published an article describing the discovery of an enzyme that destroyed Penicillin called Beta-lactamase. Two mechanisms are used by Staphylococcus aureus to cause infection (Roghmann et al 2005). These are toxin production and tissue invasion. Toxin production is exemplified in gastroenteritis resulting from consuming Staphylococcal enterotoxins in food and tissue invasion is demonst rated in the classical abscess comprised of pus contained in a fibrin wall and surrounded by inflamed tissues. Why a hospital problem? Staphylococci are the classic hospital acquired bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus is the commonest cause of surgical site infection. For years, glycopeptides, such as Vancomycin have been the first choice for serious Staphylococcus aureus infections. Now clinicians are facing strains with reduced susceptibility to glycopeptides, with no decline in virulence (Dancer 2003). Within the hospital environment there are recognised high risk areas/departments where patients are at greater risk of infection. Two such areas are intensive care units and burns units. Examples of factors associated with higher risk MRSA acquisition are previous antibiotic therapy and frequent admissions. The more often a patient is admitted to hospital the greater the chance of exposure to MRSA and being prescribed antibiotics. Patients and their pre-disposing factors,,for example, being immunocompromised,and having wounds make them more susceptible to acquiring MRSA, In addition the healthcare workers and the environment are also potential reservoirs of MRSA. The environment as a reservoir has been more difficult to assess (Dancer 2004), although work done by Rayner 2003 confirmed that MRSA has been isolated on patient equipment. The term risk factors, which are often used in relation to MRSA, apply to the strength of association between the organism and the odds of going onto develop an infection. The factors responsible for increasing resistance are complex and varied as are the potential strategies for overcoming the problem. Inappropriate prescribing and overuse of antimicrobials by clinicians may be driven by lack of understanding of the problem and inadequate surveillance for resistance. Poor prescribing and increasing resistance however not the only issue in the management of Staphylococcus aureus. This is where medical microbiologists are pivotal in the appropriate use of antimicrobials. They can provide clinicians with laboratory reports that contain a restricted nu mber of antimicrobial sensitivities, as well as advising on the correct method and appropriate specimen to obtain. This saves time and resources. Therefore the patient should receive the appropriate antimicrobial treatment at an earlier stage. However, it needs to be acknowledged that prescribers prefer and adhere more closely to policies that take an educational rather than a restrictive approach. Some view policies as rigorous and fixed and relate better to guidelines, that are seen as more flexible and acknowledge that some patients will fall outside of the recommendations (Binyon 2000). There are also legal aspects to consider, as it is more difficult to justify action taken outside a policy than a guideline. Ideally a guideline will limit antimicrobial prescribing to situations where there is a clear indication for their use and that they should be administered for the shortest effective duration. The drug of choice should be appropriate, narrowest in spectrum and correct in dose and duration (SIGN 2000). Prophylactic antimicrobials should be only given for the recommended period. Emmerson (2000) argued that perhaps a guidelines most important function is that of a vehicle for ensuring regular discussion amongst those concerned. A study by Harrison (1998) found that approximately 20% of all prescribed antimicrobials relate to hospitalised patients. Of this 20%, 20-50% was unnecessary. His study also revealed that 25-50% of all hospital admissions receive an antimicrobial at some point during their stay. The study also made the point that even if numerous bacteria are killed during a single course of antimicrobials, if one mutant microbe remains in that patient; the possibility exists for the rapid establishment of a resistant population. Current problems within the National Health Service exacerbate the issue. These problems include hot bedding, overcrowding of wards, understaffing, inadequate cleaning, poor laundry services, patient relocatio n and poor isolation facilities. Dancer and Gemmill (2003) argue that erosion of hygiene standards emanated from the ready provision of antimicrobials. Numerous guidelines have been written in order to attempt to control these problems. However sometimes what is good in theory is not so good in practice and there may be various explanations for this failure. Regardless of how sound the principles are, there may be insufficient resources to implement them. A prime example here is lack of isolation facilities in hospitals (Cooper 1999). There is a wide variance in which resistance is handled in different hospitals. Some hospitals isolate and treat the patient regardless as to whether or not the patient is colonised or infected. Therefore risk assessment in conjunction with the infection control team on a case-to-case basis is vital when resources are scarce. Presently Vancomycin and Teicoplanin are used to treat MRSA infections. The majority of patients are colonised and are asy mptomatic. They carry MRSA on skin or in the naso-pharynx. Patients who are found to be colonised in hospital settings are actively treated or decolonised. This is done by prescribing five days of a body wash used either in the bath or shower. The wash is also used to cleanse the hair. The wash includes chlorhexidine gluconate and is effective but known to dry out the skin with prolonged use. In conjunction with the body wash the patient is also prescribed a nasal cream which is applied 3 times a day for 5 days to both nares. The cream usually used is Bactroban which contains Mupirocin. For MRSA cases displaying intermediate or total resistance to Mupirocin, the cream of choice is Naseptin (BNF 2015). Discussion Antibiotic resistance may lead to routine infections being fatal. Antibiotics are losing their effectiveness at a rate that is both alarming and irreversible. The media talks of a post antibiotic era or antibiotic Armageddon. So what of the future? Researchers are developing a vaccine. In order to achieve herd immunity, 85% of the population would require to be vaccinated and the vaccine would also have to provide protection against all the strains to which someone is likely to be exposed. However, limited vaccination of at risk groups may be possible (Farr 2004). Work is also ongoing in regard to lysostaphin, which is an enzyme that causes the cell wall in Staphylococcus aureus to rupture. It was first described 40 years ago. As it is specific to Staphylococcus aureus, it would not interfere with normal commensal flora. It could be used to reduce nasal carriage and subsequently reduce infection rates. Early clinical trials have been positive. Assuming all the issues above we re overcome, resistance still would not disappear. Thus there remains a need to continue with research into how and why bacterial mutations occur and into the development of new innovative drugs, vaccines and diagnostics. More resources need to be channelled into education of health care professionals, allied with effective infection control measures. Every healthcare worker has a duty of care to comply with infection control policies. As long as infection control procedures are adhered to, hygiene improves and antibiotics are used prudently, there is the prospect of bringing MRSA under control in the hospital setting. However, we have to be aware that emphasising the importance of MRSA colonisation via policies and guidelines may result in accidental neglect of the factors that cause infection. As MRSA will continue to spread in the wider community, via both humans and animals, some of the strains spread may be highly toxic and with an ageing population and increasing numbers of immuno-compromised patients, the danger will only increase. As more advances are made in medicine, these vulnerable populations will also increase. Those at most risk are those in long-term care homes, of which there is an ever-increasing number. While cross infection routes are relatively easily defined in a hospital setting, the situation in the community is not and because care homes are major feeders when it comes to hospital admissions, the impact on the crisis stricken NHS will continue. Therefore MRSA screening was welcomed when introduced in 2013 across the UK following a nationwide study of the efficacy of screening patients on admission to hospital (HPS 2009). The aim of screening patients for MRSA is to identify patients that are colonised or infected with the organism. These patients can then be managed appropriately to reduce the risk of self-infection and of transmitting the organism to other patients. As for MRSA rates being indicators of quality healthcare, they should be considered as tools that prompt further inquiry, rather than permitting judgements on quality of care. Conclusion MRSA has the capability to cause misery, morbidity and even fatalities under certain circumstances. The body is an incredibly complex machine; scientists are making striking advances in elucidating the precise molecular basis for the interaction between adherence surface structures of an organism and corresponding specific surface receptors on a host cell. Much more has still to be learned and microbiology will continue to play a huge part in research in order to understand the mechanisms of pathogenicity and the development of antibiotic resistance. This is essential for future treatment and prevention of infections allowing humans and micro-organisms to continue to co-exist. Prevention and control of healthcare acquired infection demands the continual development of intervention strategies aimed at curtailing further antimicrobial resistance and reducing the spread of existing infection. Success however will only be achieved with a multi disciplinary approach at individual and organisational level. Infection prevention has to become an integral part of everyday healthcare practice (Fairclough 2006). Bibliography Binyon D. (2000) Restrictive antibiotic policies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" how effective are they? Hospital Pharmacist, Vol. 7(7), pp183-187. British National Formulary (BNF) 69 (March 2015) Joint Formulary Committee. BMJ Publishing Group Ltd. And Royal Pharmaceutical Society. Bush K. (2004) Antibacterial drug discovery in the 21st century. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, Vol. 10 (Supplement 4), pp 10-17. Cooper B. S., Medley G. F. and Scott G. M. (1999) Preliminary analysis of the transmission dynamics of nosocomial infections: stochastic and management effects. Journal of Hospital Infection, Vol.43, pp131-147. Dancer S. J. (2003) Glycopeptide resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. Dancer S. J. (2004) How do we assess hospital cleaning? A proposal for microbiological standards for surface hygiene in hospitals. Journal of Hospital Infection, Vol. 56, pp 10-15. Dancer S. J. and Gemmell C. G. (2003) Control of MRSA à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ Å" Can Scotland Win? In SCIEH Weekly Report 2003; 37(01). Emmerson A. M. (2000) Control of the spread of resistance. Chp. 14 in Greenwood D. (ed)(2000) Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 4th edition, Oxford University Press. Evans A. and Brachman P. (1998) Bacterial Infections of Humans: Epidemiology and Control. Rd Edition, Plenum Medical Book Company, New York. Fairclough S. J. (2006) Why tackling MRSA needs a comprehensive approach. British Journal of Nursing, Vol. 15(2), pp 72-75 Farr B. M. (2004) Prevention and control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, Vol. 17, pp 317-322. Fedtke I.,Gotz F., and Peschel A. (2004) Bacterial evasion of innate host defences à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the Staphylococcus aureus lesson. International Journal of Medical Microbiology, Vol. 294, pp 189-194. Greenwood D. (2000) Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 4th edition, Oxford University Press. Harrison P. f. and Lederburg J. (eds) (199 8) Antimicrobial resistance: issues and options. Washington DC: National Academy Press. Health Protection Scotland on behalf of Pathfinder Health Boards (Dec. 2009) Final Report Volume 1: An investigation of the clinical effectiveness of MRSA screening. Glasgow: Health Protection Scotland. Rayner D (2003) MRSA: an infection control overview. Nursing Standard, Vol. 17(45), pp 47-53. Roghmann M., Taylor K.L., Gupte A., Zhan M., Johnson J. A., Cross A., Edelman R. and Fattom A.I. (2005) Epidemiology of capsular and surface polysaccharide in Staphylococcus aureus infections complicated by bacteraemia. Journal of Hospital Infection, Vol. 59, pp 27-32. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (2000) Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Surgery. SIGN Publication No. 45, July. www.sign.ac.uk